Sexual Violence in Government and Politics Essay

Sexual Violence in Government and Politics - Essay Example From this paper it is clear that  politics governs the world since most of the policies used to implement the law and order are as a result of political ramifications. However, politics goes beyond the formulation of rules and laws that are used as a benchmark to govern societies. State have their foreign policies that regulate the extent to which they engage with other global allies. In the twenty-first century, sexual violence has become a tool for creating a compromise between opposing groups in the case of political conflicts. For instance, if a conflict ensues between two opposing sides of the government one may kidnap some members of the community’s particularly women and girls to exploit them sexually as an act of provocation to compromise the other group to come to consensus.This essay highlights that  sexual violence is thriving in governments, but most of the cases go unreported since their perpetrators threaten the victims because of the influence they command. It is a common phenomenon in most governments that people have to part with sexual favors in order to receive certain services from government officials. For instance, if one is looking for a job in a government agency, the bosses often demand sexual favors in return for the job. In essence, it is a kind of a barter exchange that occurs, but that result because the victims find themselves in a compromising situation in which they either give in to the demands or else they miss the opportunity, benefits or service that they were to receive.  

Issues in Corporate finance group coursework Essay

Issues in Corporate finance group coursework - Essay Example This implies that managers of modern corporations are judged by the level of the financial strategies they undertake in improving the commercial interests of the investors. In measuring the effectiveness of the financial strategies undertaken by the management, financial reviews of asset utilisation, dividend payout, profitability, solvency level, and liquidity are undertaken. This range of financial measures helps in demonstrating the attractiveness of given corporations in enhancing the wealth maximization of the investors. This is because the measures help in predicting the potential of the various firms in surviving and remaining profitable in the market to increase the wealth of the investors. This paper reviews the financial strategies undertaken in four public traded companies across different markets globally. The four corporations reviewed include 21Vianet Group Incorporation from China, Microsoft Corporation from America, Pearson Corporation from United Kingdom and Abakanva gonmash from the Russian market. Furthermore, the paper has undertaken a fundamental analysis of the effectiveness of the financial strategies that have been undertaken by the management of the various corporations reviewed in the research project. In financing their asset acquisition, the various corporations employ diverse financing strategies as illustrated in the table below. The financing of the capital structure of the various corporations is made up of debt and equity. 2013 financial year results have been employed in calculating the debt and equity proportion of the four firms. The computations undertaken above implies majority of the corporations been analyzed employ equity in financing their asset acquisition. Only 21Vianet Group Incorporation employs debt financing more than equity as illustrated above. The four companies analyzed in this project research have undertaken significant

Vertebrate Success in the Urban Environment

Vertebrate Success in the Urban Environment Dr Giles Johnson Lay Abstract Despite urban expansion causing an overall decrease in the number and variety of animals that inhabit a given area, some vertebrate species have made a success of urban living. Using the red fox, the Norway rat, the rock dove, and the peregrine falcon as case studies, this review analyses the resources and features that allow these animals to thrive in human settlements; and in turn how living in such environments affects them. The literature provides evidence of the ample food that urban centres provide for vertebrates, primarily in the form of waste. In the case of the peregrine falcon, the arrival of the pigeon has provided a source of prey. The living requirements of each species differed due to differences in size, reproductive behaviour and the ability to fly. Living in urban environments has dramatic effects on these species; changes in social behaviour and reproduction contribute to more efficient exploitation of the resources available. We argue that a flexible strategy in t erms of behaviour and diet is fundamental to urban success in vertebrates. Knowledge in this area may provide the means to better control populations, curbing the spread of pest species and encouraging desirable species into urban centres. Scientific Abstract Despite the homogenising effect of urban expansion on species richness some vertebrates have successfully colonised the urban niche. Using Vulpes vulpes, Rattus norgevicus, Columba livia, and Falco peregrinus as case studies, this review analyses the resources available to these species and in the strategies employed to better exploit them. Urban centres provide ample food for vertebrates primarily in the form of human waste. In the case of F.peregrinus the establishment of colonies of C.livia provides a constant prey source encouraging expansion into urban centres; providing an example of secondary succession. Differences in size and behaviour as well as terrestrial and aerial lifestyles result in different living requirements and thus preference in urban density. Living in urban environments also exerts pressures on these species. Spatio-temporal changes in resources specifically result in changes in social behaviour as well as reproductive behaviour and physiology as an adaptive r esponse. We argue that plasticity in response to diet, behaviour and physiology are fundamental to urban vertebrate success. We suggest further research into whether such responses are genotypic or phenotypic. Better understanding of such phenomena may provide humans with better means to manage urban ecology. Introduction A 2014 report on urbanisation by the UN found 54% of the global population lived in urban centres at the time, meaning for the first time in human history more people live in urban than rural environments. This figure compares to 30% in 1950 with a projection to reach 66% by 2050. These trends are encouraged by both migration and an expected rise in the population from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion by 2050 (UN, 2014). Despite urbanisation being attributed to threatening 8% of terrestrial species (Mcdonald et al., 2008) and having a homogenising effect on biodiversity (Clergeau et al., 2006), Angold et al. (2006) state that wildlife can indeed prosper in the urban environment. Although, Mckinney et al. (2006) correctly point out that some urban adaptable species tend to dominate the urban niche and spread globally resulting in biotic homogenisation. This review is concerned with vertebrate species that dominate the urban environment; assessing both the causes of such success and observin g the effects that urban life has upon these species. The introduction will define urbanisation and address both the potential negative and positive effects on overall biodiversity and on individual species. The body of this review will use two mammal and two bird species as case studies focusing on food, shelter, group behaviour, and reproduction as indicators of how species exploit the urban niche, and how in turn urban life can cause changes in these species. Jones and Leather (2012) define an urban area as a human settlement with a population greater than 10,000, characterised by a mosaic of land uses including residential, commercial, industrial and infrastructural with occasional green spaces. Moller et al. (2009) define urbanisation as the conversion of natural habitats into areas partly covered by buildings, heavily fragmented and with a high level of edge effects. Bateman and Fleming (2012) argue that urbanisation is difficult to define and will not only vary from region to region, but also exists on a scale with cities offering the most extreme of disturbed anthropogenic altered environments, through to towns and villages as well as infrastructure and parkland. It is often difficult to quantify the direct impact of urbanisation on an ecosystem due to urban centres usually predating modern ecological analysis, but, although caution should be taken with estimation, studies that compare urban systems to undisturbed natural ecosystems can provide some insight. One such study by Brook et al. (2003) assessed the impact that potential habitat loss in Singapore had on local biodiversity since the British colonised the region in 1819. The analysis combined historic documentation on land clearance and development with evidence of recent extinctions in the area. They calculated that 95% of the rainforest habitat had been cleared, estimating that the figure for overall biodiversity loss could be at minimum 28% with a vertebrate extinction rate between 34-43%. They further highlight the bleak outlook for wildlife in the region with 77% of local wildlife currently threatened. A recent study by Newbold et al. (2015) analysed the impact of land use on loca l biodiversity. The findings suggest that local richness, rarefied richness and abundance decrease as the intensity of human interference and population density increases, attributes all associated with urbanisation. These analyses draw attention to the impact that habitat loss caused through urban development can have on animal biodiversity. Destruction of habitat can also cause habitat fragmentation; the process of a habitat breaking apart and becoming increasingly isolated (Fahrig, 2003). Haddad et al. (2015) analysed data collected from over 35 years from several biomes globally and various fragment sizes. They found that fragmentation reduced biodiversity by between 13-70% with the effect greatest on the smallest and oldest fragments. The size and scale of this study provides strong evidence for such effects. Fragmentation can also exert genetic effects on a population by creating barriers through which genetic information cannot easily flow (Templeton et al., 1990). The smaller and more genetically isolated these populations are the greater likelihood the population will go extinct (Slatkin, 1977). Behavioural and morphological effects have also been observed in fragmented populations. The work of Hill et al. (1999) on the butterfly Hesperia comma in the South Downs found that individuals residing in more isolated f ragments tended to invest in larger flight muscles; a trait associated with increased dispersal distances, whereas individuals in less fragmented habitats tended to invest less in flight muscles and more in larger reproductive organs. Despite the negative impact on biodiversity there are opportunities in the urban ecosystem for animals that can take advantage. Anthropogenic food sources in the form of refuse (Gardner-Santana et al., 2009), spillage (Murton, 1972), and cultural feeding practices (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990) all provide ample food supply for urban populations. Although buildings and infrastructure can cause fragmentation and mortality risk (Bateman and Fleming, 2012), the patchwork mosaic of commercial, residential and green spaces provides a variety of potential homes for animals (Angold et al., 2006). Once initial colonisation has taken place, the dramatic reduction in competition and abundance of resources allows a niche shift, contributing to a rapid establishment (Diamond, 1970). Despite the potential benefits, urban environments are still one of the most challenging for animals to live in due to the high level and wide range of anthropogenic disturbances; mostly in the form of development a nd traffic (Bateman and Fleming, 2012). This review will make the case that in this shifting environment a high level of behavioural, physiological and morphological plasticity contributes greatly to a species success. The four case studies were selected with three criteria in mind. First a sufficient body of literature to allow for detailed comparison. Second to provide insight into the effects urbanisation has on urban vertebrates. Third species were selected that offer specific challenges to society such as pest or endangeredÂÂ   species. The four vertebrate case studies analysed in this paper are the red fox, Vulpes vulpes; the Norway rat, Rattus norgevicus; the urban pigeon or rock dove, Columba livia; and the peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus. V.vulpes was selected due to the the well documented comparison between both its urban and rural ecology and behaviour. C.livia is another well studied urban species with a long urban history; originally being kept as a source of protein throughout the middle ages (Murton et al., 1972). The ecology R.norgevicus is less well studied. This is surprising as it isone of the most ecologically destructive vertebrates (Higgins et al., 2015), regarded amo ng the most numerous and pervasive of urban pests (Feng et al., 2012), and known to harbour many zoonotic pathogens (Himsowrth et al., 2013) making it an important topic for study. C.livia also presents similar problems, befouling public spaces through defecation, the fine particles of which are loaded with zoonotic pathogens creating a risk to public health (Hetmanski et al., 2010). F.peregrinus Is a particularly interesting case of an urban success story as they also represent one of the great conservation management success stories of the last century. In the Midwest it now exclusively resides in urban centres where it was extirpated following the population crash during the 50s and 60s (Caballero, 2016). Understanding what makes these species successful could potentially help with population control of dangerous pest species such as the Norway rat and the pigeon. Understanding the factors that contribute to these species success may also allow us to build environments that encourage desirable animals, such as the peregrine and the fox, as well as creating opportunities for less successful species.This review will analyse the traits that allow successful vertebrates to exploit the anthropogenic resources available, primarily in the form of food and shelter. It will also cover the behavioural and reproductive effects that the urban environment exerts upon these groups. Resources: Food Contesse et al. (2004) found that 85% of households in Zurich had anthropogenic food accessible to foxes. There is a vast array of literature that supports the claim that V.vulpes exploits such sources. Doncaster and Macdonald (1990) analysed the diet of the fox population in Oxford finding that a majority of 37% of the average annual food intake was scavenged, a result reflected by Contesse et al. (2004) in the city of Zurich where it reached 50%. Interestingly, in both studies this figure fluctuates in response to seasonal variation. Doncaster and Macdonald (1990) found scavenging was highest during the winter when other food sources were lower, and lowest during the late summer/autumn when seasonal fruits were abundant. This flexibility in diet is reflected in studies of V.vulpes in rural environments. One study in southern England found two thirds of the diet comprised of game, withÂÂ   mostly rodents and fruit making up the remainder (Reynolds and Tapper, 1995). Whilst anot her found that for foxes inhabiting mountainous regions in the Czech Republic rodents made up the majority, supported by varying quantities of beetles, ungulates, plant matter and fruit depending on the season (Hartova-Nentichova et al., 2010). In the urban context Contesse et al. (2004) note that the more extreme urban environments, such as the city centre, were associated with increased levels of dietary scavenge. Baker and Harris (2007) suggest opportunistic feeding a factor in the successful colonisation of the urban niche and these studies support such a claim. Pickett et al. (2001) propose that the increased quantity and continuous source of food in the form of human food waste as well as the cultural practice of feeding urban wildlife has a positive impact on the fox population. Further to this, Contesse et al. (2004) calculated that the surplus of refuse removed food as a limiting factor for the fox population in Zurich which has resulted in a large and increasing population . Unlike the Zurich fox population food is usually determines carrying capacity for urban rat populations (Higgins et al., 2015). This is possibly due to the varying lengths of time these populations have been established. V.vulpes colonised the UK in the 1930s (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990) and Zurich in the 1980s (Contesse et al., 2004) whilst the commensal rat population has potentially lived alongside humans for thousands of years (Feng et al, 2014). An opportunistic generalist, R.norgevicus occupies urban centres and feeds primarily on refuse (Gardner-Santana et al, 2009). Schein and Orgain (1953) calculated that one third of anthropogenic refuse is a suitable food source for rats providing a constantly replenishing food source in urban areas. The Norway rat is so well adapted to urban life that it is rarely found in the wild, suggesting they require humans to survive (Feng and Himsworth, 2014). Although dietary flexibility has contributed to the colonisation of the urban niche t he suggestion that this species are now completely dependent upon it for survival might imply a lack of flexibility once established. A comparative study by Murton and Westwood (1966) found the rural population of C.livia nesting on the cliffs at Farnborough head fed on a variety of grains, legumes weed seeds and some small invertebrates; the ratios of which fluctuated in response to the agricultural season. The diet of the population in Leeds consisted primarily of bread but also fruit cake and commercial seed mix provided by the public. However, much of the produce found in the rural population was also present in the urban population. Murton and Westwood (1966) attributed this to the public but a study by Rose et al. (2006) provides further insight. The study analysed the spatio-temporal use of the urban habitat of C.livia in the city of Basel. They found that there were three different foraging strategies employed: 1) in the streets, squares and parks near the home site 2) In agricultural areas surrounding the city 3) on docks and railway lines in the harbour. Most individuals stayed within 0.3km of their nesti ng site in the city with only 7.5% of the population flying to the agricultural and dock sites which were over 2km away. It was found that these foraging strategies were only employed in conjunction with foraging near the home site suggesting they were secondary strategies when access to local sources was restricted. Evidence that urban pigeons employ a flexible foraging strategy. Ali et al. (2013) suggests that the worldwide urban pigeon population has boomed due to the continuous supply of anthropogenic food compared to seasonal fluctuations in rural environments. Interestingly, this population boom has potentially aided the colonisation of the urban niche and the recovery of the peregrine falcon. A study by Drewitt and Dixon (2008) analysed the diet of peregrines in three British cities: Bristol, Bath and Exeter. They found that pigeons and other doves comprised 47% of the peregrine diet making up the majority of the peregrine diet; reflecting figures from a study in Warsaw 32% (Rejt, 2001). Both studies observed seasonal fluctuations in the proportion of pigeon taken. Drewitt and Dixon (2008) noted that during the starling breeding season juveniles can make up 19% of the peregrine diet, whilst Rejt (2001) recorded a drop to 10-19% of pigeon in the diet during the migration season and exceeding 50% over the harsher winter months. It is thought that the coun tershading present on migrating birds which is beneficial in natural light is maladaptive in the artificial glare of the city lights allowing the peregrines to take advantage (Ruxton et al., 2004). TheseÂÂ   studies provide evidence for a flexible, opportunistic feeding strategy. Interestingly from an ecological perspective, the urban pigeon forming the base prey for urban peregrines (Cade and Bird, 1990) suggests secondary succession occurring in the urban environment; with the pioneer species C.livia allowing the establishment of F.peregrinus. These four case studies not only highlight the variety of food sources available to urban species but also provide insight in the type of feeding strategy enables species to exploit this niche. Although diet and preference might vary, a generalist opportunistic approach strategy is favoured, suited to the often constant but highly varied anthropogenic food types available. Resources: Places to Live Throughout the year V.vulpes rest in lays, structures that provide the fox with shelter, situationally (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990). However, during the breeding season red foxes require open ground to construct breeding dens, due to this they prefer less dense residential areas where open ground provides suitable sites (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990). In comparison the requirements of R.norgevicus are minimal, being smaller in size and less particular in regards to breeding sites. All that is needed is adequate harborage and a nearby food source, typically refuse (Gardner et al., 1948). Rats will burrow in soil, use abandoned structures, and even climb buildings and make nests from anthropogenic materials (Gardner et al., 1948). As a result rats thrive in run down neighbourhoods where there are more abandoned and neglected properties that provide harbourage (Himsworth et al., 2013). Although these two species require both refuge and food, differences in size and breeding behaviou r results in different requirements. As a consequence the fox faces greater restriction. Although birds face similar problems the spatial differences in habitat mean birds are less affected by fragmentation (Fahrig, 2003). A study by Ali et al., (2013) on the ecology of C.livia in Islamabad found pigeons to be present on bridges, tall buildings, as well as in semi urban spaces such as parks and gardens. Interestingly, population density increased around urban centres and decreased around semi-urban spaces showing a clear bias to extreme urban environments. The human environment also provides suitable nesting sites for F.peregrinus, with urban peregrines roosting on the tallest buildings in an urban space (Cade and Bird, 1990). It could be suggested that tall man-made structures such as skyscrapers mimic the cliff side habitat of these species allowing successful colonisation to occur. Effects: Range and Group Behaviour The urban environment is characterised by high level of disturbance. Construction, demolition and changes in human population all contribute to fluctuations in the spatial distribution of resources (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990). In response to this we see high levels of plasticity in fox social behaviour (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991; Baker et al., 1998). The home range of urban foxes is dramatically reduced usually extending for less than 100ha (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991), whilst in rural individuals it can exceed 2000ha (Contesse et al., 2004). This is associated with increased resources over a smaller area which also results in increased population density (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991). Interestingly, this has implications for the social behaviour of urban foxes. Red foxes are usually solitary animals that form pairs during the breeding season, but in urban settings live in groups of three to five (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991). This is best explained by the spatio-tempo ral variation in the availability of resources in the anthropogenic environment which impacts both individual benefit and defence costs potentially leading to group formation (Doncaster and Macdonald, (1991); Baker et al., (1998). The spatial distribution of resources in towns and cities is such that with only two members the perimeter cannot be fully defended whilst the amount of resources within a territory are often abundant enough to promote group formation (Donacaster and Macdonald, 1991). These changes in social structure show high levels of behavioural plasticity which has potentially aided the expansion of the red fox into the urban niche. There are interesting parallels to draw between urban rat and fox populations, particularly in relation to range and social behaviour. The home range of urban rats is typically small; consisting of narrow strips between the animals harbourage and its food supply (Davis, 1953). Gardner-Santana et al. (2009) proposed that the range of urban rats is much smaller in urban environments, ranging from 25-150m (Davis, 1953), compared to those of rats in rural environments, which range from 260-2000m (Taylor and Quy, 1978). Feng et al. (2014) suggest that range is dependent on the availability of suitable harborage and food sources as well as pressure from conspecifics. This is comparable to the reduction in fox range which was attributed to a high density of anthropogenic resources in the urban environment. Like the red fox, urban rats also exist in larger colonies than their rural counterparts although, unlike foxes, they lack co-operative behaviour (Feng et al., 2014). In fact, the increas ed population density and fierce competition often results in increased levels of aggression (Feng et al., 2014). There is also evidence that spatio-temporal distribution of resources affects group size and behaviour in C.livia. Murton et al. (1972) noted that the flock size of C.livia was directly related to the quantity of daily food spillage, unlike in the closely related wood pigeon, C.palambus, where seasonal food supply dictates flock size. Murton also observed that pigeonsociety exists in hierarchical structure with some birds occupying the centre of the flock and having preferential access to the best feeding spots. Despite differences in social structure, the changes in range and group living in the fox, rat and pigeon offer insight into the effects that urban living can exert upon the behaviour of species. It could be suggested that the plastic nature of these behaviours has contributed to the success of these animals in the urban niche. Questioning whether such effects stem from the environment working on established plasticity within the genotype or whether such changes are the resul t of natural selection would provide an interesting topic for further study. Effects: Reproduction and Population Due to their high fecundity, even in urban environments with an abundant resources, food usually determines the carrying capacity of the urban rat population. A sexually mature female can produce five litters per year with 4-8 pups per litter (Margulis, 1977). The work of Ziporyn and McClintock (1991) noted that females living in groups often establish oestrus in synchrony, observing that when this occurred 80% of pups would survive compared to asynchronous breeders. These co-ordinated events result in population booms (ibid) which maintains the numerous population. Glass and Herbert (1988) also noted that urban rats grow faster and reach sexual maturity sooner than their rural counterparts, suggesting the abundance of anthropogenic resources as a cause. Understanding when these booms occur could help humans better control urban rat populations. The effect of increased resources on rats draws parallels with the population dynamics of C.livia. Hetmanski et al. (2010) found that the size of a pigeon population in an urban environment was linked not only to the size of the urban environment but also with the density of the human population, suggesting a correlation with increased anthropogenic resources. Murton et al. (1972) noted that due to the copious food supply there is little migration resulting in nest sites remaining occupied all year and rarely becoming available. This change in behaviour meant that two thirds of the pigeon population failed to breed potentially decreasing the effective population size. Further to this, there is evidence that males carry an allele that lengthens the breeding season and increases fertility (Murton et al., 1973) suggesting there is a selective advantage for remaining sexually active for longer. Changes in reproductive strategy in urban F.peregrinus have been attributed to the speed of its recovery since the population crash in the 50s/60s. A study by Kauffman et al. (2003) compared the survival rate of rural and urban peregrines in California. During the first year it was found that urban young had a 65% chance of survival compared to 28% in rural individuals. Caballero et al. (2016) also found that the urban clutch size tends to be larger, with an average clutch size reaching 4-5 in urban environments compared to 3 in rural. This effect has resulted in a population boom with populations in the UK and Germany already exceeding pre-crash levels (Rejt, 2001) Although the mechanisms differ, there is a clear pattern for increased fecundity in urban populations of these species contributing to their success. Conclusions The case studies discussed provide evidence of the opportunities available to vertebrates with the means to take advantage of them. Despite different needs, the human habitat offers ample shelter for vertebrates, with rats and foxes occupying spaces determined by their size and behaviour whilst man-made structures mimicking the natural habitat of peregrines and pigeons offer nesting sites. Anthropogenic waste and cultural practice supplies foxes, rats and pigeons with an abundant food supply that, although fluctuates spatio-temporally in relation to human rhythms, does not suffer the same seasonal fluctuations which characterise the rural environment. This combines with the opportunistic generalist nature that characterises these species allowing them to take advantage of such resources. Consequentially, there are marked changes in behaviour with determined by the change in urban resource distribution. This has resulted in increased group size and co-operation in V.vulpes; alteration in flock size relating to daily opposed to seasonal resource fluctuations in C.livia; and larger more aggressive colonies of R.norgevicus. Peregrines also benefit from a constant food supply in the form of the anthopogenically supported pigeon population; an example of secondary succession of the urban environment. They exhibit opportunistic behaviour in both the species they hunt and their potential use of skyscrapers as hunting aids. The argument for a degree of behavioural plasticity allowing these species to take better advantage of such resources is well supported but questions are still to be answered on whether such changes are a result of natural selection or are phenotypic responses to changes in environment. Similar questions also arise when considering the effects the urban environment has on reproduction. Although the mechanisms differ, we see a pattern of increased fecundity across the case studies. Increase in fledgeling success in F.peregrinus is easily explained by ecological factors, but the change in peregrine clutch size and the increased growth and approach to sexual maturity in R.norgevicus are less easily determined. The identification of an allele in C.livia that extends the breeding season suggests a genetic cause in this instance. However, each case should be considered independently and these situations open up a multitude of questions in relation to whether cases of behavioural and physiological plasticity is related to the genotype or phenotype of an organism. There are surprising gaps in the literature and areas that appear to be poorly replicated. Reviews on urban rats comment on the lack of ecological understanding of R.norgevicus. From a utilitarian perspective this is counterintuitive considering the risk it poses ecologically, economically, and to public health. Conversely, the literature on urban foxes is both extensive and varied, perhaps denoting the popularity of this animal in the public mind. From a practical perspective this information is perhaps less useful although the cultural impact of urban wildlife should not be dismissed or undervalued. The projected increase of urbanisation highlights the importance of understanding both the traits of successful species and qualities of the environment that encourage vertebrate success. Such information can provide us with the means to better manage urban populations. In regards to pest species this could aid efforts to control and minimise their success, whilst better planning could attract not only current successful species but also edge species into the urban environment. References Ali, S., Rakha, B., Hussain, I., Nadeem, M. Rafique, M. (2013). Ecology of Feral Pigeon (Columba livia) in Urban Areas of Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 45(5), 1229-1234. Angold, P., Sadler, J., Hill, M., Pullin, A., Rushton, S., Austin, K., Small, E., Wood, B., Wadsworth, R., Sanderson, R. Thompson, K. (2006). Biodiversity in urban habitat patches. Science of the Total Environment, 360(1-3), 196-204. Baker, P. Harris, S. (2007). Urban mammals: what does the future hold? An analysis of the factors affecting patterns of use of residential gardens in Great Britain. Mammal Review, 37(4), 297-315. Baker, P., Robertson, C., Funk, S. Harris, S. (1998). Potential fitness benefits of group living in the red fox, Vulpes vulpes. Animal Behaviour, 56, 1411-1424. Bateman, P. Fleming, P. (2012). Big city life: carnivores in urban environments. Journal of Zoology, 287(1), 1-23. Brook, B., Sodhi, N. Ng, P. (2003). Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature, 424(6947), 420-423. Caballero, I., Bates, J., Hennen, M. Ashley, M. (2016). Sex in the City: Breeding Behaviour of Urban Peregrine Falcons in the Midwestern US. Plos One, 11(7). Cade, T. BIird, D. (1990). Peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus, nesting in the urban environment a review. Canadian Field-Naturalist, 104(2), 209-218. Clergeau, P., Croci, S., Jokimaki, J., Kaisanlahti-Jokimaki, M. Dinetti, M. (2006). Avifauna homogenisation by urbanisation: Analysis at different European latitudes. Biological Conservation, 127(3), 336-344. Contesse, P., Hegglin, D., Gloor, S., Bontadina, F. Deplazes, P. (2004). The diet of urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and the availability of anthropogenic food in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. Mammalian Biology, 69(2), 81-95. Davis, D. (1953). The

Abortion :: abortion argumentative persuasive argument

Abortion A couple decades ago, when abortion was illegal, thousands of women died because they did not want to bear an infant and attempted to terminate the child's life by themselves or with an unprofessional approach. After 1973's Supreme Court decision, which allowed women to have the choice to abortion, thousands of women were saved. Abortion can save thousands of lives of women and thus, should remain legal in the United States. Imagine you have a balance beam. On one side you have the physical life of an infant and on the other you have the mental and emotional life of a mother and her unwanted child. Which side can we, as civil humans, claim as more valuable? Up to this current day, abortion has become an exigent issue that faces everyone nationwide. As a moral and ethical issue, abortion is a dilemma for society. Abortion was illegal before the 1973 Supreme Court decision in the trial of Roe v. Wade, but now that abortion is legitimate, women have the freedom and the choice to live their life the way they want to. Albeit, abortion is criticized by religious sects in America and some of the public, the practice of abortion should remain legal in the U.S. because it allows a woman to choose her destiny and prevents unwanted children. Definitions are essential to define in this issue. Abortion is the forcible removal of a developing baby from the womb of his or her mother, using surgical, mechanical, or chemical means. Medical definition holds that abortion is any termination of pregnancy before 20 weeks. Medically defined, abortion is the "end of a pregnancy before viability." Therapeutic abortion is the termination of pregnancy via the intervention of a physician through surgery or the use of RU-486 or some other medications. Conception is a synonym for fertilization or creation. An embryo is a stage of prenatal mammalian development which extends from 2 to 8 weeks. Fertilization is the penetration of an ovum by a single sperm. A fetus is a stage of prenatal mammalian development which extends from 9 weeks after fertilization. Miscarriage is the interruption of pregnancy prior to the 7th month, usually used to refer to an expulsion of the fetus which starts without being induced by medical intervention. About a quarter of all pregnancies end in a miscarriage. An ovum is the mature sex cell generated by females in an ovary.

A safe seat for lightweight vehicles

The Working Group on Accident Mechanics has developed a low mass vehicle (LMV) with a curb weight of 650 kg, called â€Å"Cratch†. This experimental vehicle demonstrates that a high level of passive safety for the occupants of low mass vehicles is achievable in frontal collisions (Frei 97). The development of a car seat suited for use in LMVs has been a part of this project. The seat is an important element of the restraint system: In the case of a frontal crash, the initial position of the occupant is defined by the contour and position of the seat, and, during the crash, a part of the occupant's kinetic energy is absorbed through deformation of the seat base. In rear-end impacts the seat represents the entire restraint system. During a collision against a conventional car, the low mass vehicle, due to the fundamental laws of motion, is exposed to higher accelerations and a larger change in velocity than its counterpart (Niederer 93). The seat presented here was specially adapted to these severe conditions. Nevertheless, almost every feature of the concept could easily be adapted for use in conventional cars. The main focus of the development was on the improvement of the rear-end impact safety, which represents a substantial problem, also for conventional cars. Compared to the considerable improvements of crash safety in frontal and side impacts accomplished during the last years, progress concerning the rear-end impact safety has somewhat stagnated. This may be related to the fact that rear-end crashes are often considered to be less dangerous, since there is a very high surviving probability for the occupants. In spite of this, it is very worthwhile to invest in rear-end impact safety since injuries caused by this collision type do not only cause high amounts of compensation costs but also can have very unpleasant consequences to the occupants involved. Energy absorption In addition to the functional mock-up, two crash-testable models of the seat have been built. They were used in the Cratch experimental low mass vehicle in a full scale frontal crash test with a delta-v of more than 70 km/h, and in a series of sled based rear impact tests. Figure 4: The crash test model of the seat: raw structure and completed seats integrated into Cratch low mass vehicle. Seating position is more upright as in conventional cars. The requirement for a geometrical adaptability for the spectrum ranging from the 5th to 95th percentile occupant alone is not sufficient; the energy absorption capabilities of the seat must also be made suitable for the whole group. This means that the seat must deform softly enough not to exceed tolerance limits for light persons but must also provide enough deformation space for heavy occupants. Since the amount of prototypes was limited, e.g. more than one test per seat specimen had to be performed, the seats had to be reusable, leading to a rather robust and heavy construction. Seats for ‘real world' use do not have to fulfil the reusability requirement, allowing for a less heavy construction. The seat has been designed to withstand an sled impact speed of 33.3 km/h. This corresponds to a situation in which a standing low mass vehicle is hit on the rear end by a conventional car of twice the weight travelling at 50 km/h. Based on a force-deformation curve of an existing car and an assumed characteristic for the Cratch (which has not been rear-end impact tested) an acceleration-time curve for the Cratch has been calculated and simplified for use in simulations and sled testing. The maximum acceleration level is 30 g. Since it is known that cervical spine injuries can already occur at much lower loads, impact speeds of 22.2 and 11.1 km/h have also been taken into account for the design of the seat. The corresponding acceleration levels for these speeds are only 20 and 12 g, because in these cases impact energy is considerably smaller and the deformation zones of the cars are not deformed to a degree that higher forces (leading to higher accelerations) are built up. In order to find suitable stiffness characteristics for the different energy absorbing units of the seat, a simple computer simulation model was used in which the occupant is modelled by four independent masses. Realistic results with such a model can only be expected in case where there are no, or very little translational displacements between the body parts. For our purposes, this is not a real disadvantage, since the aim is to find a setting wich results in a minimum of relative translational deformations (at least in the upper body regions). In a first step, the model was verified through comparison with a well-tried rigid body simulation program. Unfortunately, there is no model of the cervical spine available yet that is able to exactly mimic the behaviour of a human neck. Figure 6: Simplified rear-end impact model of occupant and seat, used for computer simulation. The deformation characteristics of the paddings have been evaluated by dynamic impact pendulum tests. Energy absorption is performed both by foam paddings and by rotational yielding of the seat back. Yielding is controlled by a deformation element, which consists of a three point bending beam made of aluminium. The yielding moment is 3000 Nm. During loading, the element builds up deformation force in the elastic range only gradually. This is undesirable as it causes a faster backward movement of the head restraint in the first phase of the collision. Bolts have therefore been integrated in the construction to obtain a deformation characteristic that sooner reaches its energy absorbing level. The bolts shear off during the onset of the yielding process and cause higher forces at the beginning of the deformation process. The replaceable deformation elements are the only structural parts of the seat that are supposed to absorb energy. Energy absorbing properties of other load bearing components are irrelevant. This means that the seat concept and the choice of material for the realisation are almost independent of each other. The centre of rotation of the yielding back rest is positioned relatively high above the seating level. Yielding of the back rest is thus delayed and an earlier contact between head and head restraint is obtained. Because the pelvis is already in contact to the back rest at the beginning of the crash, no considerable relative velocities between the pelvis and the back rest arise during impact and therefore little deformation space is needed in this region. The acceleration levels of the different body parts are mainly influenced by the stiffness characteristics of the foam paddings. The paddings have to be chosen such that relative movements between head, neck and thorax are minimised. A combination was found that works adequately under the conditions mentioned above. Even with an automatically adjusted head restraint, for comfort reasons there will remain some initial distance between the head and the head restraint, causing a delay of the acceleration of the head in comparison to the thorax. A layer of a very soft foam applied in the thorax region reduces the acceleration of the thorax in this first phase of the impact (Muser 94) and thus helps to synchronise movements of the head and the thorax (as tests by Svensson (96) have shown). Assembly of energy absorbing foams in the seat back. A hard foam type (Woodbridge Enerflex) and two softer foams (Dow) have been used. Empty spaces in front of protruding structural components prevent excessive compression of foams and increase of forces in these regions. Renault is hoping supermini buyers will be ‘Vel Satisfied' with the look of the new Clio, which is revealed by Auto Express with this world exclusive spyshot picture.The distinctive supermini borrows its bold front-end styling from the controversial Vel Satis, and is charged with storming straight to the top of its competitive market sector when it goes on sale in the UK in September priced from à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7,500. Destined to go head-to-head with the forthcoming Ford Fiesta and the still-secret Peugeot 107, the radical Clio will boast an innovative new range of engines and gearboxes. These include direct-injection petrol and diesel powerplants, and new CVT transmission plus a revised five-speed manual. Both the three and five-door editions will be available from launch, and the duo will be instantly identifiable from the existing cars thanks to bold new headlamps and an aggressive grille. Wing mirrors, sills and side rubbing strips are also revised, as are the edges of the bumpers, which now blend into the slippery lines more effortlessly. At the rear, revised lights share centre stage with a huge Renault badge. And in keeping with company policy, the manufacturer's name will no longer appear on the bootlid. Major interior changes will place greater emphasis on safety. It's thought that the Clio will now include curtain airbags, following the lead set by Vauxhall's Corsa, and it will aim to gather the full five stars in the revised Euro NCAP crash-test series. Equipment levels, too, are expected to be more generous than at present, and will probably include satellite navigation for the first time. Keyless start, as fitted to the Laguna (see photo) and Vel Satis, will not feature, however. The engine line-up will be largely familiar to buyers of the current Clio, as the powerplants are among the newest in the business. The company used to have a reputation for poor-quality, outdated motors, and so has worked hard to transform its entire range into the most sophisticated in the business. First in the line-up will be a new 1.2-litre 16-valver offering 75bhp and class-leading fuel economy, followed by the 98bhp 16v 1.4-litre. The top-of-the-range luxury Clio will be powered by the 1.6-litre unit which features 110bhp, while the 172 tuned by Renaultsport will continue to use the fire-breathing 2.0-litre engine – ensuring it keeps its place at the top of the hot hatch tree. Renault will also keep pushing its diesels, which are enormously popular in mainland Europe. Two options will be available, both based on the company's state-of-the-art new 1.5-litre dCi oil-burner, with either 65bhp or 85bhp. Gearbox choices will be limited to a five-speed manual and a conventional auto at first, although the firm is experimenting with Nissan's acclaimed CVT automatic from the current Micra. Renault's own ‘Easy' clutchless manual was dropped due to slow sales and is unlikely to be revisited. Of course, the new look isn't only reserved for the mainstream models. Renault's stylists have also interpreted it for the fire-cracker hot hatch, the Renaultsport 172. And our spy photographers were able to bring you an all-round tour of the model which must uphold the honour of the craziest hot hatch on the market today. Inside has been treated to a mild spruce-up. You can clearly see new metallic-effect sports trim on the facia, and Renault insiders say that there will be revised specification levels for the UK. However, the main architecture remains unchanged. Visually, the new face has a meaner stare, with an aggressive front airdam that's open rather than fluted. The deeper rear valance comes with an air-vent groove beneath the bumper line. New five-spoke alloys, a chunky Renault logo on the tailgate, colour-coded side-rubbing strips and a new slash of silver trim complete the picture. As you can see, the styling tweaks lift the Clio's profile slightly upmarket, giving it a more mature and sensible image – but don't be fooled†¦ The tuned 2.0-litre four-cylinder 16-valve engine remains one of the most entertaining hot hatch motors of its kind, and the power output will stay at 172bhp, guaranteeing the same performance. However, if enthusiasts were hoping that the wildest hot hatch ever – the Renaultsport Clio V6 – would get the same changes, they'll be disappointed. As it's such a specialised, low-volume machine, it is remaining unchanged throughout its lifetime. Not that we are complaining! Something as anti-establishment as the Clio V6 isn't about to appear dated just because the car it was loosely based on has had a subsequent facelift. Of course, the standard model's fresh look is designed to keep the Clio riding high in the sales charts until an all-new successor arrives in 2003. This will share its platform and engines with the next Micra, although they will have different interiors and styling to reflect their diverse characters. On the whole, these latest revisions to the range look set to keep interest levels bubbling away for the already successful Clio family. And what's more, the timing couldn't be better, as there is a whole host of new metal lurking on the horizon†¦ With the likes of the stylish MINI here this summer, a Fiesta replacement being unveiled in September, the next-generation Peugeot 106 and Citroen Saxo due next year and Volkswagen's Polo arriving in 2003 as well, the Clio must face up to some stiff competition. But by welcoming its baby to the latest family look, Renault is out to prove that it hasn't only been concentrating on larger products such as the Laguna, Avantime, Vel Satis and next Espace. There's more than enough fight left in the supermini – especially as insiders say that the update won't affect the pricing strategy.

In His Tragedies Shakespeare Often Presents Women Merely as the Tragic Victims of Men Essay

‘In His Tragedies Shakespeare Often Presents Women Merely as the Tragic Victims of Men.’ To What Extent Do You Consider This Applies to Desdemona ‘In Othello’? â€Å"There are no Antigones in Elizabethan Drama,† Lyndsey Turner. Turner is here expressing the view that Shakespeare does not use his women as heroines. Instead she is of the opinion that they are used as devices on which the â€Å"tragic impulses of the plays’ male characters are enacted.† They are a device to produce a cathartic response from Shakespeare’s audience. In order to discuss to what extent Desdemona complies with this view, it would appear logical to define a tragic victim. Many say that a tragic victim is a character in a tragedy who suffers at the hand of circumstance and the fates. They suffer through no fault of their own and are brought down by others, they are totally powerless to change their fate and don’t contribute to their own tragedy; they are solely the victims of others. It is also vital that they produce a cathartic response from the audience in order for their suffering to be tragic. Looking at these criteria it becomes clear why Shakespeare often uses women as his tragic victims. In the time Shakespeare was writing women had very little influence on their destiny having to submit either to their father or husband. They were the objects of men. When Iago warns Brabantio of his daughter’s escape he says â€Å"Look to your house, your daughter and your bags.† This shows of how little importance women were, being so powerless they would then be a natural choice for tragic victims, powerless to avoid their fate because of their weakness in society. However, when Desdemona is first presented to us she does not seem anything like a stereotypical woman of the time. Her character is presented as much stronger than that. Her father has not tried to force her into marriage even telling Roderigo that, â€Å"My daughter is not for thee,† even though it is clear that Roderigo is a rich man. At the end of Act one he goes to, â€Å"sell all his land,† in order to pursue Desdemona. As Brabantio is not therefore being in any way a tyrant to his daughter; her ability to escape from the house and deceive him shocks us and surely would have shocked a contemporary audience even more. This woman is not the kind of person you would expect to become a victim. Before the audience have even seen her she is described as a woman of, â€Å"Beauty, wit and fortunes.† She has gone to Othello in the dead of night protected by a, â€Å"Knave of common hire, a gondolier.† This shows Desdemona’s bravery and strength. All of this increases her status with the audience and detracts from the image of a weak submissive woman. In Act 1 Scene 3 she defies what the Duke says, when he requests that she stay at her father’s house while Othello is in Cyprus saying that, â€Å"She did love the Moor to live with him.† For a woman to speak in front of a council of the most powerful people in Venice, not invited to do so, would be shocking to a contemporary audience and really show her strength of character. It is almost as though she is a feminine version of Othello, as Patsy Hall says, â€Å"She cannot be the man, but she can be the husband of the man.† She has shunned the â€Å"Wealthy curled darlings† of her nation unlike most women and instead chooses Othello. She doesn’t care about his age or race she â€Å"sees Othello’s visage in his mind.† The language Shakespeare gives her when talking of her wooing shows how deeply immersed in Othello’s world she is; she, â€Å"Falls in love with the battles† even her language is strong. â€Å"My downright violence and storm of fortunes,† She is presented as incredibly strong certainly not a figure of pity. It is seemingly no wonder that Othello calls her, â€Å"his fair warrior.† Although Desdemona is first portrayed as quite a heroic figure by Shakespeare he soon starts to use her as a cathartic device, as the audience watch her previous strength fall away. It becomes clear that Shakespeare made her so strong willed deliberately in order to shape our response to Desdemona. Doing this makes it that much more painful for the audience. A major episode wherein Desdemona is presented as an object of pity is in the handkerchief episode. Desdemona loses her handkerchief and Othello sees Cassio with it. Despite Othello’s growing suspicion, Desdemona remains ignorant claiming that, â€Å"The sun where he was born drew all such humours from him.† We feel tremendous pity for Desdemona when she says this because Shakespeare has shaped our response using structure and also the irony of her language. In the last scene we saw that Othello was seething with jealousy and vowed to kill her. This amplifies hugely our feeling of catharsis for her because we feel so helpless. Our pity for her is only added to when Shakespeare shapes events in the play so that all her qualities that were viewed as good in the first act of the play cause her to fall even further. However, she is still a victim because she is powerless to stop it; she is a victim of circumstance and ignorance that Iago has been planning her destruction. She continues to mention Cassio even when it is clear it is causing Othello irritance, she thinks that it is a â€Å"trick to put her from her suit.† The audience’s feeling of catharsis is amplified as we can do nothing while her language puts her fidelity in more doubt in Othello’s mind The time when we pity her most however is when Othello strikes her. Again she says precisely the wrong things, through no fault of her own but rather because her loving nature wishes to help Cassio, saying that, â€Å"She would do much for the love she bears to Cassio.† All the audience can do is sit and despair for her. When he hits her we think that maybe her strength will come back but she simply responds by saying that she, â€Å"Will not stay to offend Othello.† We despair because we know that if she submits to Othello she will die at his hands. This is yet more evidence of Desdemona’s good proving to be her downfall. Shakespeare shapes events very cleverly in the next section in order to get the largest cathartic reaction. For a moment it seems like we might see a glimpse of Desdemona’s fight. She claims, â€Å"She has no Lord.† The audience think for a moment she will be fine, however soon she is asking Iago, â€Å"What shall I do to win my Lord again.† The assertive Desdemona from the earlier scenes is gone and the audience despair for her. Even when Othello kills her she does not blame him. When asked who has killed her she says, â€Å"Nobody, I myself.† She dies a symbol of goodness and love, the way Shakespeare shapes her demise is unquestionably tragic. However, is she actually a victim? The audience on the most part at the time would say she is because she does not fall through a flaw in her character. However was she totally helpless and unable to change her fate? Patsy Hall argues that Othello and Desdemona have a, â€Å"Mutual ignorance of each other’s nature,† saying also that she is, â€Å"so selflessly devoted that she cannot acknowledge imperfection in her husband.† I would agree with this statement by Hall. The audience are constantly perplexed throughout the play as to why Othello will not listen to anyone but Iago. This could be perhaps a comment on how women have had to suffer under the patriarchal society in which Shakespeare’s original audience was living, perhaps through Desdemona he is trying to show the unfair nature of their society. But in many ways the same is true for Desdemona. Emilia tries to tell her that, â€Å"Jealous souls are not ever jealous for the cause, but jealous for they are jealous.† But even after this warning Desdemona takes no heed of anyone but Iago, therefore it could just perhaps be confirmation of Iago’s intelligence, this backs up Desdemona’s role as a victim as she is a victim of others. So in conclusion there is no doubt that Desdemona’s demise is very much tragic. Also having examined the criteria it would be accurate to say that in many ways Desdemona is a victim. She suffers through no fault of her own and is the victim of circumstance. However, I am not sure that one could say that she was totally powerless to stop her eventual fate. I would say that Desdemona was not a victim of Iago’s scheming or Othello’s jealousy as she could have stopped these. She was a victim of her own love for Othello. Therefore, I would say that the statement in the title applies to Desdemona so far as she was the tragic victim of her own love for a man.